Cultural interludes in the history of Lucknow – Part I

An exploration of Dadupur, a Bronze Age Site near Banthra, and Hulaskhera, an ancient lakeside civilisational alcove, in the Sai River Valley

“It is a truism that the course of human history in a region is, in a considerable measure, shaped by its physical and geographical features, which, in turn, in the ultimate, are determined  by the geological history the region has passed through in the dim vista of time…Of the three natural divisions of India..the part which was most suitable for human occupation and to function as the nursery of civilisation is the great central tract of the Indo – Gangetic plains.”

D. N. Wadia

The geography that we will traverse in this article is part of the Ganga plains, a fertile region blessed by its myriad rivers, besides the annual monsoons, which have over several millennia sustained an agrarian culture which has been the cornerstone of the human societies that lived and thrived here. The Ganga – Yamuna river valleys with their lush expanses have created a fecund ground for human settlements since prehistoric times to the present day. Explorations undertaken along the tributaries like the Gomati, and the Sai, which nourish the region which is the focus of this essay, have revealed many ancient and prehistoric archaeological sites of significance. Sites such as Sarai Nahar Rai, Manadaha and Damadama have been identified as important Mesolithic sites in the Sai – Ganga river valley system.

A snapshot of Sarai Nahar Rai emphasising the scale of archaeological richness of the region

Sarai Nahar Rai, in the district of Pratapgarh, is the site of the discovery of the oldest human fossil remains in the Indian subcontinent. The exploration and excavation at Sarai Nahar Rai was carried out during the period 1968-70 which brought to light microliths, and elaborate burials, with skeletal remains dating to 8000 BCE. The appearance of microliths (very small stone tools) marks the change in the craftsmanship of the stone tools used by the people because of the changes in lifestyles as a result of environmental factors around the beginning of the Holocene period or the end of the Pleistocene period. The discoveries at Sarai Nahar Rai carry immense significance in the field of human palaeontology of the Indian subcontinent.

“Geologically the find dates back to the beginning of the Holocene epoch and radiometrically to 10345 +/- 110 years before the present.”

Lucknow 

Travelling north west from Sarai Nahar Rai, along the course of the river Sai, we reach another historically important region of the Ganga Plains – the district of Lucknow, with the river Gomati meandering through its territory in a north west – east south east direction. Geographically, the region is divided into three sub micro geographies, namely, the Gomati Basin, the Lucknow Uparwar Plain and the Upper Sai catchment area. The distinction is based on the nature of soil, topography, climate and natural vegetation found in these three different micro regions.

In the olden times, Lucknow was a profusely wooded region dotted with subtropical vegetation, many streams, and lakes (jhils) mostly concentrated in the southern and south eastern parts of the district, with the forests of dhak, kachnar, amaltas, mango and more punctuating its river valleys with their dazzling blooms during spring and summer. With the growth in population much of these dense jungles were cut down for agriculture and related economic activities, and the conservation of jhils suffered to the point that many were lost, and those that were not, continued to exist, but in a highly diminished state as compared to their earlier and plentiful times. 

Naimisharanya

As a district, Lucknow is bounded on all sides by places with valuable remains that serve as a record of a people and region’s historical roots and cultural identity. On its south west is the district of Unnao with sites such as Pariar, Sanchankot, Bangarmau, Newal, Mohan and more which attest to the habitational antiquity of the region, on its north west is the district of Hardoi where excavations have revealed a Shunga era temple and other archaeological remains in the village of Lal Tilai, besides other historically promising locations, on its north is the district of Sitapur well known for the pilgrimage site of Naimisharanya / Neemkhar / Neemsar. Other archeological sites of note in this district have revealed cultural layers and artefacts from the Bronze or the Vedic Age with places like Sidhauli being the site of the discovery of copper hoards, and Khapura further contributing to the knowledge of the spread of the OCP ware. To the east of Lucknow lies Barabanki and on its south lies Raebareli, two districts which have also revealed considerable historical remains for a more comprehensive understanding of the history of this region. Raebareli’s Lashoda Tal has been the site of the discovery of the oldest agricultural pollen in the central Ganga plains. Kanshamira, Durgapur and Kithawan in the same district have thrown up archaeological material from the pre NBP stage to the medieval era.

Although some scholars place the region of Lucknow in the historical geography of Kosala, it formed part of the realm of Panchal which bordered Kosala on the west. The Shatapatha Brahmana Kanva (SBK) states the boundary of Kuru-Panchala and Kosala-Videha as the river Sadanira, while the Shatapatha Brahmana Madhyandina (SBM) states that Sadanira was the boundary between Kosala and Videha. There’s not been any conclusive identification of the river Sadanira but from the various scholarly positions on the issue the river is likely to have been one of the eastern rivers, namely, Ghagara, Gandak, Rapti etc. which lie to the east of the river Gomati.

“the actual boundaries of the tribes, cf. the statement of ŚB about the Sadānīrā as the boundary of the Kuru-Pañcāla and Kosala-Videha (ŚBK), viz. that of the Kosalas and Videhas (ŚBM). The territory of a Vedic school mostly coincides with that of a particular tribe; Again, the boundary between the Kaṭha and the Taitt. territory is not clear at all; it should coincide more or less with the boundary between the Kuru and the Pañcāla, which in itself is unknown. The same applies to the Taitt./Vājasaneyi border; most probably it was formed by the Sadānīrā river which divided the Kuru-Pañcālas from the Kosala-Videhas (acc. to ŚBK) or the Kosalas from the Videhas (acc. to ŚBM). The river itself has not been identified with certainty. The solution depends on which one of the ŚB versions is to be taken as authoritative.”

Michael Witzel

Excavations carried out over different periods have revealed several archaeological sites of note in the Lucknow district. Sites such as Ain, Bhadoi, Kalli Pachchhim, Kuria Ghat, Ramasare Purwa, Nagram, Dadupur, Qila Faridnagar, Qila Mahammadinagar, Lachhman Tila, and Hulaskhera have revealed artefacts from the ancient times even as several sites, likely, still lie unexplored and unknown holding invaluable historical evidence in their modest swathes. The Gomati river which cuts across the district of Lucknow has its banks dotted with many ancient sites some of which like Kuria Ghat, Ramasare Purwa, Qila Faridinagar, Qila Mahammadinagar, and Lachhman Tila fall within the limits of modern day Lucknow.

The history and archaeology of Lucknow has quite lamentably not found the place it deserves in the popular historical narrative of the Ganga plains. Its culture and history has oft been associated with its Nawabi or its medieval past than with the times when it formed part of the Vedic realm of the province of Panchal. Its archaeological wealth lying in plain view stands a mute spectator to the administrative apathy and ill conceived planning which threaten its very existence. If urgent steps are not taken to stem the tide of cultural neglect and destruction, a people would forever be deprived of an important source in the understanding and documenting of their cultural history.

In this article we will be rediscovering two sites – Dadupur and Hulaskhera – in the district of Lucknow and delve into their geography and archaeology to paint a picture of the region’s history and culture as it existed several millenia ago. 

Dadupur

The site of Dadupur (26° 41’ 12” N; 80° 49’ 05” E) lies at a distance of 25 kms to the south west of the city of Lucknow on the Lucknow – Kanpur highway. Dadupur is the oldest dated site between the Gomati and Sai rivers and carries immense significance in sequencing the Iron Age in India, and more significantly in the Ganga valley. The ancient site lies 1 kms to the south west of Banthra, across the Nagwa channel. The flow of the Nagwa channel has exposed the northern part of the site, revealing its cultural deposits. This stream which originates in Mohan (another ancient site of the region) in the Unnao district joins the river Sai at Bani. When the channel is recharged with water it throws a glistening mantle across the western and northern borders of the ancient mound at Dadupur

Prior to the excavations carried out between 1999 – 2001, P R Sengupta had unearthed “artefacts from the late Stone Age and fossilised bones of mammals in the Holocene deposits of sticky clay and caliche” besides several other objects which put the antiquity of the site far earlier than previously thought. The artefacts discovered by Mr. Sengupta were found deposited in silt in a gully of the Nagwa channel and consisted of flakes and micro blades, chips, scrapers of chalcedony, beads of quartz, stone and bone tools, pebble of agate besides pottery sherds.

The archaeological excavations at the site, which were carried out by the UP State Archaeological Department, between the years 1999 – 2001, brought to light three cultural periods. The earliest cultural layer after the archaeological excavations conducted between 1999 – 2001 has been dated to sixteenth and eighteenth centuries BCE. This cultural layer identified as Period I has revealed iron artefacts in the form of arrow heads, fragment of a copper axe, and pottery, both handmade and wheel turned, in the form of Ochre Coloured (OCP), Black Slipped Ware ( BSW), Red Ware, Black and Red Ware (BRW. Some of the handmade pottery fragments with a cord design unearthed in this layer were found to resemble the pottery discovered at the lowest levels at the archaeological site of Kalibangan (a site that has been dated between 3500 – 1750 BCE), Rajasthan. Similarly a channel spouted bowl unearthed at the site resembles the one excavated at the Chalcolithic site of Navdatoli, near ancient Mahishmati, in Madhya Pradesh.

The presence of iron artefacts in this period indicates people of Dadupur were in contact with the iron ore rich regions in their neighbourhood like the Vindhyas from where they sourced the raw material for manufacturing tools and weapons. One of the nearest of such iron ore sites from where they could have procured raw material for their tools lies near the Musakhand village in the Chandauli district of Uttar Pradesh. The site known as the Geruwatva Pahar is situated to the south east of the Baba Wali Pahari close to the Musakhand dam by the Karamnasa river. refer maps. The Geruwatva Pahar is full of hematite with villagers recounting accounts of the Agaria tribe visiting the site for the procurement of iron which they did by smelting the hematite.

This part of the Karamnasa valley appears to have been a regional hub for iron smelting and manufacturing of iron wares. Linking geological evidence of the distribution of iron ore sites with the archaeological evidence unearthed so far it is not difficult to deduce that iron ore sites were at a fairly accessible distance of the ancient people of the Ganga Yamuna valleys who used the metal in the best possible way to surmount their environmental challenges. This cultural contact of the people of Ganga valley with the mineral rich regions, which fell in their proximity, was initiated much earlier than hitherto recognised, as findings from Dadupur have revealed.

As to why no iron from such an earlier cultural layer has been unearthed from other excavated sites in the Ganga valley, archaeological opinion offers several possibilities. One of them being that environmental damage may have corroded the metal to such an extent that it may have been barely recognisable from the surrounding soil. The iron artefact unearthed at Dadupur although mineralised enough was in a fairly better state of preservation and hence could be salvaged as a marker of cultural antiquity and valuable historical record. Another reason for the apparent absence of iron at other explored sites is the lack of radiocarbon dates for the pre NBPW and early Iron Age levels.

“The quantity and types of iron artefacts, and the level of technical advancement indicate that the introduction of iron working took place even earlier. The beginning of the use of iron has been traditionally associated with the eastward migration of the later Vedic people, who are also considered as an agency which revolutionised material culture particularly in eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar (Sharma 1983: 117-131). Further, the evidence corroborates the early use of iron in other areas of the country, and attests that India was indeed an independent centre for the development of the working of iron.”

Rakesh Tewari 

“Iron smelting was at one time a widespread industry in India, and there is hardly a district away from the great alluvial tracts of the Indus, Ganges and Brahmaputra in which slag heaps are not found…the primitive iron smelter finds no difficulty in obtaining sufficient supply of ore..Sometimes he will break up small friable bits of quartz iron ore schist, concentrating the ore by winnowing the crushed materials in the wind or by washing in the stream. Sometimes he is content with ferruginous laterites, or even with the small granules formed by the concentration of the rusty cement in ancient sandstones.”

T. H. Holland and L. L. Fermor

Based on the evidence of burnt terracotta nodules with reed marks, it can be ascertained that the structures during the late Bronze Age identified as Period I must have been that of the wattle and daub variety. Although the presence of brick structures could not be ascertained at this level, kiln burnt bricks were a noteworthy find from this period. Carbonised remains along with charred bones with cut marks were also found at the site. 

Period 1 provides enough evidence, on the basis of carbon dating, to establish the culture which flourished at Dadupur on similar cultural timeline as the Rigvedic / OCP / Copper Hoard / Black and Red Ware culture of the Ganga Yamuna valleys. Although in this regard, a point to note, after the latest findings from the archaeological excavations at Sanauli, is that the tentative date for the occurrence of the Mahabharata has been assigned to this very era. This period is also classified as the chalcolithic culture in the Indian context.

“Land slidings of the shallow escarpment, have exposed the compressed mud floors of the dwelling places giving evidence of unilinear cultural development in the Ganga Valley from spiked Copper Axe, OCP sherds and perforated jars below and NBPW and Grey polished at the top. Of these the most remarkable find is the spiked Copper Axe which reflects the ingenuity of the chalcolithic man of the Ganga Valley in the technology of copper.”

“ The study of bones..revealed that these are of Equus caballus Linn (Pony type), Canis familiaris Linn and Bos indicus Linn”

P.R. Sengupta

Period II at Dadupur was marked by the appearance of the Painted Grey Ware, a pottery style which has been often associated with the sites of the Mahabharata era. The Painted Grey Ware culture has been variously dated with the most recent assessment pegging the period of occurrence of this pottery between 1300 BCE – 700 BCE. Besides PGW, Red Ware, Black Slipped Ware, Black and Red Ware were also discovered in this cultural layer. Three successive floors were revealed at this level. The first floor was made with mud and rammed potsherds. The second floor was made with thick yellow mud. This floor also had a big oven which was found filled ash. Other antiquities discovered at this level included iron artefacts, bone artefacts, arrowheads, beads and hopscotches. 

Period III which has been marked by the Northern Black Polished Ware style of pottery also revealed other associated wares as the Red Ware which is the most dominant pottery style, Black Slipped Ware, Black and Red Ware and Plain Grey Ware. This period has been dated between 700 BCE – 200 BCE. Middle level of this period brought to light two successive floors made of mud, ash and rammed potsherds. Other discoveries included, terracotta beads, semiprecious stones, bone artefacts, charred bones, broken burnt bricks, iron and copper artefacts. A broken stone hammer among the objects recovered stands out for its excellent craftsmanship and appears to be a prototype of the metallic hammer.

From these archaeological findings one can construct a fairly reasonable picture of the culture which thrived at Dadupur in ancient times. This can be broadly classified under the following heads – Settlement Pattern, Pottery, Economy and Travel and Communication. Since the region in which Dadupur lies falls in the Vedic realm of the Ganga plains where a significant portion of the Rigveda Samhita and the later Vedic texts took shape we’d also take a look at the features of the Vedic society for a better understanding of its earliest cultural period. In tracing the history of the place we’d also delve into the kind of societies which were in existence during the PGW and NBP phases

Settlement Pattern 

As understood from the archaeological findings, people of Dadupur since the late Bronze Age / Vedic Age to the NBP phase drew their sustenance primarily from settled agriculture and related activities. Domestication of animals including pony was practiced for agricultural and trade needs of the people who were settled at the place. Discovery of kiln baked bricks at the very earliest cultural phase at Dadupur indicates, if not all, a group of people at Dadupur enjoyed a stable and well to do existence which triggered the need for dwellings which were stronger and durable against environmental threats. Although due to restricted size of the excavations the core area of the civilisation which once flourished at Dadupur couldn’t be traced, and hence neither any structures of bricks nor the extent of the usage of bricks could be ascertained, the presence of bricks is sign enough of the comfortable economic and settlement pattern of the people of the place. Throughout the three periods, houses of the wattle and daub variety continued to be made together with the brick structures. 

During the Vedic Age, royal grants of land were only to the extent of the transfer of privileges with respect to the fiscal matters, and not transfer of the ownership of land. Since cattle was a much prized acquisition norms were set for its ownership. If a person found a stray cattle grazing over his land or on an unclaimed land, and no past record of ownership over this living creature was found, the person was allowed the possession of the cattle.

Administrative and Legal Structure 

From the texts of the the Vedic Age we get a fair idea of the kind of administrative system which was in place during this time for the managing of a kingdom. The smallest unit of administration was the village which was presided over by the village head known as the Gramani. He was also part of the royal officials who assisted the king in his duties in war and peace. The gramyavadin or the village judge presided over less serious criminal and civil cases within his jurisdiction while the more serious offences were dealt with under the supervision of the king who was ably assisted in this task by his appointed officials. Among other officials that find mention are the Purohita or the royal priest, Senani or the chief of the king’s army, the Bhāgadugha or the collector of taxes, Sūta or the charioteer as well as the narrator of epics and heroic stories, the Samgrahitri or the treasurer, the Akshavapa or the Head of Dicing (dicing was a royal sport and likely had a department devoted to its management), the Kshattri or the chamberlain, the Govikartana or the huntsman, the Palagala or the courier and Sthapati who was either the chief judge or a local chieftain.

The village or grama consisted of closely constructed houses with their periphery surrounded by a protective hedge to keep away wild animals and aggressors. Earthen fortifications too were built to guard against external attacks, and natural calamities, like floods, especially by a riverine hamlet or a group of riverine hamlets. The Vedic texts mention houses made of wood with beams of bamboo. An individual’s right to property, related to the land which he cultivated,  was a legally recognised right in this Age. The individual, in this sense, meant the head of the family, and inheritance either during the life of the head of the family or on his death was a legal feature. Money lending contracts were probably the only legal contracts known during this Age. 

In this Age, the administration of a kingdom was managed by two controlling bodies knows as the Sabha and Samiti. The distinguishing feature between the two entities was, while the Samiti was a policy framing and decision making body, besides having the power to legislate, the Sabha, relatively smaller than the Samiti as a body, involved itself with political matters. 

Pottery

Pottery has long been considered an important archaeological record due to its regular occurrence in the course of excavations and surface explorations. The kind and scale of pottery prevalent in a culture helps in deciphering trade patterns and general economy of a people. It also throws light on the consumption pattern. In this regard, style and quality of pottery of the people who once inhabited Dadupur comprises both the fine as well as the coarse variety. Red ware which includes the OCP is the predominant ware in the earliest phase of habitation. It has a fine finish and indicates practiced care in its manufacturing both by the potter’s wheel as well as by hand. In a similarly refined finish are the other associated wares like the BSW and B&RW although the latter also consists of the coarse variety in its assemblage. In Period II, the pottery culture exhibits moderate changes with the introduction of the PGW, although the continuity with the older period is maintained in the use of the wares associated with the earlier phase. In Period III, NBP ware is brought to light, although previous period’s pottery continues in usage. In all the three phases corded impressions on the outer surface reminiscent of the Kalibangan’s earliest pottery registers a marked presence. 

The shapes of vessels comprise water containers, like pots and tumblers, shallow dishes for gruel, deeper vessels where different kinds of foods could be mixed, and bowls. Several perforated shreds of vessels with stands were also unearthed at the site during the exploration in the 1960s. Of what use were these styles of pottery is quite thought provoking. Did these serve as lids for vessels in which incenses were burnt or to create beautiful patterns of light emitting from a lamp, did they serve as lids to emit steam while cooking liquids such as soups, milk, gravies or did they serve as a cover while cooking steamed food such as rice or wheat cakes. The variation in quality of the wares indicates, the potter had demand for his goods from various sections of the socio economic groups, and he crafted his wares depending upon the quality of exchange in store.

Economy and Trade

From the archaeological record of Dadupur, it can be inferred that the economy of the place was largely pastoral and based on agricultural activities during ancient times. The people brought into cultivation the fertile expanse at their disposal as well as participated in hunting and gathering in the forests which surrounded them. Rivers and streams in their vicinity formed a rich source of water which they utilised for irrigation and household needs. Vedic literature mentions artificial waterways such as khanitrimāāpah and kulyā. Wells too find mention in these texts which were used to irrigate the farms. For the upkeep of the administrative machinery, people were required to pay tributes to the king in the form of “ share of village, horses and kine”, food grains, and other materials which the royalty thought it necessary to collect. Such contributions may originally have been voluntary, but from the later Vedic texts it is assumed they subsequently acquired the nature of mandatory contributions. 

Although the earliest archaeological evidence of coinage dates to 6th century BCE, the time of the Mahajanapadas, the earlier societies too had devised ways to facilitate economic transactions and sustenance through exchange. Saraswati Sindhu civilisation effectively used barter system to build a network of trade and commerce. Even though Vedic literature like the Rigveda doesn’t mention coins per se, it carries references to nishka, nishka-griva, hiranya-pinda for gold ornaments and gold globules respectively. There is also reference to nishka, suvarna, shatamana, pada for metal objects in the later Vedic texts which could have been metal pieces of certain weight and value which may have been used as a means of exchange by the societies of the time. 

Since the earliest phase of Dadupur corresponds to the Vedic Age which after the Sanauli excavations has been tentatively revised to the Mahabharata era, it’s possible that while trading with the regions in their neighbourhood the people of Dadupur adhered to the norms of trade as were prevalent in the larger economic sphere of the time. Though by the time the NBP phase took shape they may also have adopted the punch marked coinage of the era. 

Presence of iron and copper in the earliest cultural layers dating to the Bronze Age indicates people were aware of the metals, and possessed the know how of harnessing them for their use. It also indicates that they were in touch with the mineral rich regions in their proximity like the Vindhyas and peripheral limits of Malhar from where they sourced iron and the Aravallis from where they may have procured copper. Further evidence of trade and nature of economic activities comes from the semi precious stones which were discovered at the site. Whether these stones were from a nearby source or far flung would help in recreating the routes the people of Dadupur traversed for their material and trade requirements. A number of bone artefacts unearthed from the site indicates that likely a socio economic group living at Dadupur was engaged in the manufacture of bone objects perhaps both for local as well as regional consumption. Remuneration for skilled work was paid to the craftsmen by the villagers as a fixed sum than at a variable rate of pay for individual works,

Travel and Communication 

If we associate the earliest cultural period at Dadupur with the Vedic Age, we get a fair idea of the kind of transport used by the people by referencing the Vedic literature. For travel on land, carts and chariots drawn by oxen, mules and horses were the preferred mode of transport. While boats were used for riverine travel horseback travel was also much in practice. Vedic god Pushan was the protector of the paths while Indra was prayed for a safe journey.

As we have seen there was regional contact between the people of Dadupur and people that dwelled in their surrounding geography. Such contacts were necessitated out of economic and material needs such as procurement of ore, semiprecious stones, market for their goods and such like. This gives rise to the question what could have been the possible routes which may have been traversed to reach the required destinations. Did Dadupur enjoy a locational advantage which lent it enhanced accessibility, what could have been the route more preferred – land or riverine or a combination of both. We will delve into this as a combined topic when we discuss Hulaskhera. 

(to be continued in part 2 of this essay along with references)