Cultural interludes in the history of Lucknow – Part 2

An exploration of Dadupur, a Bronze Age Site near Banthra, and Hulaskhera, an ancient lakeside civilisational alcove, in the Sai River Valley

Hulaskhera

Nestled in the woods of Mohanlalganj tehsil, and embellished by the oxbow lake called Karela Jheel, at a little more than a half an hour’s drive from the state’s capital, Lucknow, lies the ancient archaeological site of Hulaskhera. The distance between the archeological site of Dadupur, which we explored in part 1 of the essay, and Hulaskhera is around thirty kilometres. The province of Lucknow in which Hulaskhera falls has been identified by some scholars with the Visoka / Pishoka  mentioned in the travel accounts of Hiuen Tsang, the Chinese visitor who came to India in the seventh century.

Kasapura mentioned by Hiuen Tsang in his travel accounts has been identified by Julian as likely being one of the archaeological sites in Mohanlalganj, Lucknow. Among such sites in Mohanlalganj, the possibility of the historical city being Hulaskhera cannot be ruled out.

The archaeological mound measuring 80 acres is situated to the north of the village of Hulaskhera with which it is connected on its southern part by way of a narrow path that stretches across the Karela Jheel. Besides the Karela Jheel, the rivers of the region drain the site from all directions – river Loni on the east, the Sai on the south west and the Bakh on the west. Several neighbourhood lakes in places like Purseni, Sisendi, Jabrauli, Baden Khera, Sherpur and Devti dot the wider landscape making it a richly irrigated hub. Mohanlalganj taluk has also revealed early historical remains including pottery and beautiful terracotta figurines of Gupta period at Parwar-Pachhim.

On the north eastern part of the archaeological mound is situated the temple of Kaleshwari Devi. Although the temple is a modern day structure, the deities enshrined here date to an ancient period. A terracotta figure of the Mother Goddess from the Gupta period which was discovered near the temple during archaeological explorations is now housed in the Lucknow museum, while another partly damaged figure is worshipped by the villagers at the temple along with an ekamukha Shivalinga attributed to the Kushan period. The temple of Kaleshwari Devi becomes the venue of two religious fairs which are held during the summer months attracting devotees from near and far. There are two wells around the temple which are still in use and date to the Kushan period. As per folklore, a demon enchanted by the virgin goddess Kaleshwari expressed his intentions to marry her. The goddess put a condition that she would agree, if he could construct a certain number of houses with a well within each in the span of one night. The demon despite his best efforts could not fulfill this condition and bid a hasty retreat in mortification.

The archaeological site of Hulaskhera has yielded evidence of continuous cultural sequence from 1000 BCE to 1300 CE covering the late Vedic era, the Mahajanapada era, Mauryan era, Shunga and Kushan era, Gupta era, late classical era and the medieval era. Although an archaeological exploration had been carried out at the site in the nineteen sixties (1965-66) by a team of archaeologists from the Archaeological Survey of India, the site was subjected to an extensive study in the late nineteen seventies (1978-79) for the first time by the Department of Archaeology, Govt. of Uttar Pradesh when the priest at the Kaleshwari Devi temple reported the existence of an ancient well that he had chanced upon during the course of enhancing the irrigation system of the area.

Beginnings of a Culture

To better understand the geographical expanse which gave birth to the settlements of Hulaskhera and Dadupur and other sites in the area, we’d begin at a time prior to 14000 cal BP when an active channel of the river Sai was in flow at the site. Due to a gradual southward shift of the river channel around 14000 cal BP there resulted the formation of an oxbow lake that subsequently came to be known as the Karela (M.charantia or Bitter Gourd) Jheel given the suitable agrarian conditions for the production of the vegetable that was grown profusely on the dried lake bed by the people who inhabited the place. The earliest evidence of the cultivation of this crop has been dated to the level of 6770 cal BP. Between 14000 – 12500 cal BP the region was marked by open grasslands and few trees and enjoyed a cool and dry climate. The period 12500 – 8700 cal BP is characterised by open grasslands and burgeoning tree cover due to the initiation of a warm and humid climate and introduction of seeds into the soil from farther regions through wind and water channels. Cereal based agriculture in the region began around 9000 cal BP as substantiated by the evidence of pollens from cereals.

Between 8700 – 4800 cal BP although the agricultural activities continued to thrive there was a depletion in the diversity of flora and forest groves due to the increasingly warm and relatively less humid climate. The period 4800 – 2000 cal BP is when the intensity of the SW monsoon increased bringing with it a proliferation in the tree cover and increased agricultural activity as denoted by the number of cereals whose presence in the region has been recorded dating to this period. From 2000 cal BP the climate turned dry and warm and monsoonal activity was relatively reduced. This brought about a re-emergence of the open grasslands and changes in the vegetation pattern. Agrarian practices continued with the same intensity as before in order to sustain the population.

“The region has a great relevance to agriculture/arboriculture since ancient times as revealed by a recent study in Ganga Plain, which indicate existence of advanced agricultural practices) but at present stressed by high seasonality, depleting resources and increased population” (Pokharia et al., 2016)

“The remarkable features of Ganga plain are presence of abandoned channels and meander cut-offs resulting into ox-bow lakes or ponds, supposed to be formed by disruption of fluvial channels due to tectonic activities. The lake originated as cut-off meander of the Sai River, which now flows 10 km south of study site.” (Singh, 2005)

To understand the socio political milieu in which the culture of Hulaskhera flourished and sustained itself, we would review the history of the region with regards to several significant points namely – Religion, Settlement Pattern, Pottery, Economy and Trade, Polity and Administration, and Travel and Communication. A study of these aspects will enlighten us in depth on the course of history through which the civilisation at Hulaskhera progressed, the socio cultural framework within which its people lived and engaged with the world.

Religion

Period I Pre NBP 1000 BCE – 700 BCE

During the later Vedic age in which the earliest cultural phase of Hulaskhera flourished, the religious practices largely revolved around the sacrificial rituals as enshrined in the Yajurveda and the Samaveda, the Brahmanas and the Srautasutra as well as those set of rituals which were enshrined in the Atharvaveda and the Grihyasutras. The latter comprised of rituals which concerned themselves with fertility, expiatory and initiatory rites. These rituals helped in warding off diseases, controlling rivals and enemies, invoking deities to destroy the negative forces so as to safeguard the well being of the individual and the family, protect crops and the like. The domestic hearth was the place where offerings were made to the chant of the mantras to propitiate the divine. These offerings were made on the many occasions thought suitable for the same be it at specific times during the day, in the various seasons, to mark the phases of the moon and so on. The domestic fire also became the holy witness to the different events which took place in the life of a family like a wedding, birth, upanayan, grihpravesh, shraddha, last rites, seasonal harvest etc.

Period II 700 BCE – 300 BCE

For the period under review, the religious landscape of Aryavarta reverberated with the chants of the Vedic mantras and came alive with the auspicious fragrance of the many sacrificial rituals that took place in the land. Some of the Vedic deities worshipped during the time included Agni, Indra, Varuna, Pusha, Surya, Rudra, Mrida, Sarva, Bhava, Vrishakapi, Aryama, Tvashta, Nasatya. Besides the primacy of Vedic practices, the age saw the development of ascetic religious orders, the bhakti movement concerning with theistic devotion to a particular god or goddess, deification of time in its various forms of seasons, days, months and stars, the emergence of the cult of the Yakshas, Nagas and other deities and the growth of Buddhism and Jainism as systems of faith.

Period III 300 BCE – 200 CE

From the cultural layer dated to the Shunga and the Kushan era, a partly damaged gold plaque bearing the image of Kartikeya was one of the valuable finds unearthed during the archaeological excavations at Hulaskhera. In this depiction, Kartikeya is shown standing in samapāda mudra attired in a dhoti. His right hand is shown holding a spear while the left hand holds the uttariya. He wears a jewelled trifoil headgear. His two eyes are differently shaped in the form of a petal and a mani. He wears karna kundala and flat kantha. Different sacred texts have described the iconography of Kartikeya in detail like the Vishnudharmottara which describes Kartikeya as six faced, wearing red garments with his hair styled into three or five locks (sikhandaka). The trifoil headgear in the gold plaque suggests the lock arrangement of the deity’s hair. His mode of conveyance is peacock. His right hands hold a cock (kukkuta), and a bell (ghanta) while his left hands hold a victory flag (vaijayanti pataka), and a spear (sakti). Kartikeya is described as the commander in chief of the army of the gods in our religious texts. He is recognised as the son of Shiva and Parvati and is known by various names such as Skanda, Kumara, Mahasena, Visakha etc. Although Kartikeya has been mentioned in our Vedic texts, his formal worship evolved much later in history. We find references to Skanda and Visakha in Patanjali’s Mahabhashya where he describes the deities as laukika devatas. Evidence of a shrine dedicated to the worship of Kartikeya was brought to light at Lala Bhagat near Kanpur. The remains of the shrine in the form of a stone pillar, with a cock capital, showcasing Surya and Lakshmi indicate the association of Kartikeya with Sun worship during the period. In the Kushan era, Kartikeya worship had gained in popularity and the deity was worshipped in its various forms such as – Mahasena, Visakha, Skanda and Kumara. Kashyapa Samhita describes the four gods as brothers of the goddess Shashthi. Her fifth brother was described as Nandikesvara – Shiva standing against the bull Nandi. This depiction can be seen on the Kushan era coins.

After the ascension of the Shunga dynasty, a spirit of revivalism permeated the religious landscape of Aryavarta. Vedic practices received vigorous state patronage under the Shungas with the kings of the dynasty participating in various sacrifices and rituals as seen in the epigraphic and literary records of the period that have come down to this day. Among the rituals practiced by the householders (grihasthas) mention of panch-mahayajna and shraaddh for the departed family members is found in the records of the period. Devotional movements, like Vaishnavism which revolved around the worship of Vishnu, and Shaivism which revolved around the worship of a Shiva were popular during this period. Relics of Shunga era shrines have been discovered in districts adjoining Lucknow indicating that temple building was an important aspect of the religious life of the people of the region during this age although very scarce temple remains of the era have been discovered so far. Dramatic performances were also staged on the life of the various avataras of the gods as a mark of devotion to the deity. Ascetic cults, cults of the materialists, Buddhism and Jainism too had their share of followers during this time. Naga and Yaksha worship was also prevalent in the period under review.

The religious conditions under the Kushans can be gauged from the epigraphic, literary and architectural evidence that has come down to us from that time. Vima Kadphises was a devotee of Shiva and gave himself the title of Sarvalokesvara Maheshvara with his coins carrying the depictions of Shiva and Nandi. Kanishka, who ascended to the throne after Vima, was more eclectic in his religious outlook. He demonstrated religious tolerance and patronised different beliefs be it Brahmanical, Iranian, Hellenistic as seen in his coins which carry images of deities from all these religious pantheons. Huvishka followed the same path of eclecticism as Kanishka. However Vasudeva, who came to the throne after Huvishka, is believed to have been a devotee of Vishnu as is evident from his name even as his coins carried images of the deities, Shiva and Amba. Vedic sacrifices and Brahmanical rituals continued in this age as in the previous and even received royal patronage. Buddhism and Jainism too had their centres of influence and followers during this period as did the minor religious orders like that of the Ajivikas and the Lakulisas. Naga worship was prevalent and formed part of the three religious orders of Brahminism, Buddhism and Jainism.

Period IV Gupta and post Gupta 200 CE – 700 CE

Sculptures of Naigamesha were unearthed from this cultural layer at Hulaskhera indicating prevalence of worship of the deity during this period. Iconographically, Naigamesha is depicted with a head of a ram / goat, long pierced ears and hooked nose. On top of the head is a fan shaped knot with two holes. The deity is depicted in both the male as a well as the female form. The ram head is reminiscent of the goat¬ headed deity Daksha-Prajapati. Based on a story on the origins of the god Kartikeya, Naigamehsa is identified with Skanda. The story goes that once upon a time Shiva personified as Vibhavasu Agni and Parvati personified as Svaha beget a son Kartikeya who assumes the name Naigamesha, being the son of Vibhavasu Agni whose vahana is said to be the ram or mesha. Grihyasutras mention an entity Nejamesa who is said to have posed a threat to the children. The Atharvaveda mentions a figure with a ram head who brought harm to children. To appease the destructive force and protect their offspring people made offerings in kind and prayers to the deity Naigamesha. Worship of Naigamesha was popular during the early centuries of the common era particularly around the Kushan and the Gupta period.

Some of the sealings discovered in this cultural layer are insightful for their legends. One of them bears the legend ‘Rudra’, and the other Gargeshwar. These legends indicate several possibilities. Either these sealings refer to shrines situated in Hulaskhera which were dedicated to the worship of the deities Rudra and Gargeshwar or these shrines were situated elsewhere in the region to which the people of Hulaskhera frequented. We find parallel instances of inscribed religious sealings being issued by the priests of a shrine at Jhusi. Visiting devotees were given sealings bearing the legend of the deity Padmanabha by the priests of the temple which they took to their native places. Such sealings have been discovered during excavations at the concerned sites.

Eight sealings of the Gupta period were also recovered bearing the legend Maharaja Kashikauputrasigaja. A seven hooded serpent canopy signifying either Naga or Vishnu worship was also recovered from the site. A fragment of a pillar capital, carved buff stone, an image of a lady holding a water vase were some of the other remains excavated from the site indicating that once upon a time a religious shrine stood at the place, a fact which has been discussed elsewhere in this essay. Stone sculptures of Ganesha and other deities were also recovered during the excavations at Hulaskhera.

To understand the religious atmosphere prevailing during the Gupta era, a review of the epigraphic and numismatic records of the Gupta rulers as well as other archeological evidence dating to that period is insightful. Vedic symbolism in the form of yupas, depiction of the Ashvamedha yajna by way of a horse standing near a yupa, king offering sacrifice at a yupa, chakra, can be found on the coins of the Gupta kings indicating the royal house was an enthusiastic participant in the Vedic rituals. Coins issued during the reign of the dynasty depict the goddesses Lakshmi and Durga, seated on a throne, lotus, and a lion respectively revealing the predominance of Devi worship during the period. Devi Ganga is depicted standing on makara not only on the coins of the era but also on temples of the period which depict both Ganga and Yamuna in prominent positions in their deisgn highlighting the significance these rivers had in the development and prosperity of the riverine culture which formed the nucleus of the Gupta empire. Numismatic evidence also points to the use of traditional Hindu religious motifs such as the tulsi vrindavan, lotus, crescent, Garuda. Gupta king Chandragupta II professed to being a Paramahagavata in his coins emphasising the royal patronage which Vaishnavism received during his rule. The Gupta era temples were dedicated to the worship of a host of deities like Shiva, Vishnu, Varaha, Parvati, Surya and others. From the epigraphic evidence we find Samudragupta being compared to the deities Kubera, Varuna, Kritanta indicating the religious leanings of the said king. Apart from Brahmanical worship Gupta era also witnessed the construction of Buddhist and Jain shrines at different places throughout the kingdom which further adds to our understanding of the religious atmosphere of the time.

From the travel records of Hiuen Tsang and the writings of Banabhatt, we can  construct a picture of the religious life of the people of India during the era of Harshavardhan. Although his own beliefs were based in the religion of Buddhism, Hiuen Tsang has given vivid account of the significance Brahminism occupied in the society of the time. India was known as the country of Brahmins with the community occupying an esteemed position among the people. Sanskrit was the language of the cultured class, an indication of the intellectual influence of the Brahmins of the day, with the best Sanskrit being spoken in the region of Madhyadesha. Brahminism had various ascetic  sects and classes of devotees immersed in the worship of a particular deity be it Shiva, Durga, Shakti or  Krishna. Deva temples dotted the landscape of which Hulaskhera was a part. Buddhist centres like Kapilavastu and Sravasti too had Devalayas dedicated to the worship of Brahmanical deities. The principal deities of the time were Shiva, Vishnu, Gauri, Ganesha and Surya. Each of these deities had temples in the capital city of Kanyakubja as well as throughout the kingdom. During the reign of Harsha, Buddhism was on the decline overall even though its various sects still survived under the main divisions of Mahayana and Hinayana. The  cities like Sravasti. Kapilavastu, Vaishali where once Buddhism had witnessed growth were now either in ruins or had insignificant number of followers remaining. However, the belief was finding favour in stray places like Vallabhi and Nalanda. Asceticism motivated people to live the life of a renunciate. Groups of ascetics travelled throughout the land teaching not only religious aspects but educating people in a wide range of subjects. These groups formed the biggest facilitators of education in the remotest areas of the kingdom.

Period V 700 CE to Medieval

To understand the religious landscape of the geography under study during the late classical and early medieval period we can look at the religious patronage provided by the imperial house of the Pratiharas who ruled from Kanyakubja or Kannauj in this era. During the rule of the Pratiharas, Kannauj was a vibrant centre of Hinduism or what the scholars describe as the Brahmanical thought and philosophy. Archaeological excavations in the region have revealed figures of Vishnu, Shiva, Parvati, Surya, Ganesh, Saptamatrikas, Mahishasuramardini, Nrvaraha, Balarama which throw light on the deities worshipped by the people during this period. Shiva was worshipped both in the linga as well as the vigraha form. Kartikeya was worshipped in different forms including in the form of abhishekamurti. Panchadevopasana was common during this era in Madhyadesha. The religions of Buddhism and Jainism were on the wane at this time and confined to a few places and communities.

Settlement Pattern

Period I and Period II PreNBP 1000 BCE – 700 BCE and 700 BCE – 300 BCE

Due to the limited area on which excavations were carried out no structural evidence of housing, postholes or any other construction activity could be unearthed from the recovered cultural layers of this period. But we do have an idea from other archaeological sites as well as our traditional texts on the kind of buildings which were in prevalence during this period. Besides elaborate housing complexes for the royalty and nobility, wattle and daub structures were built by the inhabitants for their dwellings be it in towns (nagara) or villages ( grama). The dwellings were generally made of wood like in the earlier period and were spacious enough to accommodate large families. These dwellings also provided for space to house domesticated animals. Cows were held in reverence and well looked after. Atharvaveda prescribes death penalty for the offence of killing a cow which again reiterates the sacred position of the cow in the society of the day. A separate place was carved out in the house for the sacred fire or Gārhapatya which was kept perpetually lit. A women’s quarter was also created within the house known as patninama sadan (Atharvaveda). A separate room or house known as dhanadhani was also created on the lines of a treasure house (Taittiriya Aranyaka).

Panini throws light on the type of buildings which were built during his time. His references are valuable for forming an idea of the architectural landscape of those times. For urban centres, buildings that were known to Panini comprised rāja sabhā (king’s council), griha (houses), nikayya, nivāsa (residential complexes), chhātri sālā (hostels for women), koshthāgāra (royal store houses), nishadyā (rest houses), sālā-bila (granary), gosālā, kharasālā (stables for cattle), bhāndāgārika (storage houses) and devāgārika (shrines for deities) among others.

Panini gives a vivid layout of a standard village of his time. The village settlement was known as vasati while a collection of villages was called grāmatā. The smallest unit constituting a village settlement was the kuti inhabited by a single family. Being a rural settlement the village mostly consisted of peasant houses. Wells formed the chief source of water for a village. These wells were maintained by dredgers known as udagāha or udakagāha. Besides the natural boundaries of hills, rivers, forests, the landscape of a village included arable land (sītya), pasture (gochara), groves of fruit bearing trees (phalegrahi), thickets of bamboo, grasses like munja, sara and shrubbery of herbs (aushadhi vanaspati).

Kshetrakaras were entrusted with surveying the cultivable land to determine individual agricultural holdings on the basis of the quantity of seed required for sowing in a given area as well as to determine the kshetra bhakti or area of cultivated field. As opposed to individual holdings there’s also mention of consolidated holdings known as kaidārya. Gramya pashu sangha denoted the pastures held in collective ownership by the villagers for the grazing of their cattle. Cattle ranches were known as goshtha while the dwellings of cowherds were known as ghosha. Except for the land used for habitational purposes by the villagers, the agricultural, the manure dumping ground and the grazing ground were required to be shifted every twelve years. Forest land around the village could be used for grazing the cattle.

From the botanical remains retrieved from the site, an assessment of the agrarian activities of the people of Hulaskhera has been drawn. The botanical remains consist of wheat (Triticum Aestivum), barley (Hordeum Vulgare), rice (Oryza Sativa), cultivated Ragi African millet (Elusine Coracana), bathua (Chenopodium Album), and Indigo (Indigofera sp) which throw light on  subsistence agriculture of those times. As evident from charred bones discovered at the site, meat was also part of the diet of the people of ancient Hulaskhera. From the Vedic literature we come to know of the kind of crops that the people of those times grew in their fields and the time of sowing and harvesting of such. Barley was sown in the winters and harvested in the summers, beans and sesame were sown in the summers for harvesting in the winters, rice was sown during the rains and harvested in autumn. A dish made from wheat known as saktavah was consumed which conveys that the people of those times cultivated the crop along with various other grains. Threats to agriculture in the form of pests, drought, floods were countered in the form of prayers and charms. In conclusion, the  people of Hulaskhera during the later Vedic period were engaged in extensive agricultural activities in the riverine basin they had made their home, blessed as it was by plentiful avenues of irrigation and salubrious climate.

Period III 300 BCE – 200 CE.

Period III was marked by the presence of structures made of kiln baked bricks. These structures belonged to three different phases. The different phases assigned to these structures was based upon the varying kind of bricks used to build them. The earlier phases were dated to the Shunga era in which structures that have been unearthed consist of a housing complex with many rooms interconnected with well laid entrances. Floors were paved with bricks, clay and brick jelly. In the second phase, the structures comprise of housing complexes built of baked bricks. Lanes and by lanes measuring 0.75 to 1.00 m separate these complexes. Each complex comprised of two to three rooms. Floors were paved with brunt bricks or clay. Roofs were made of tiles put together in a sloping fashion. The third phase which involved brickbats and bricks of a smaller size was dated to the Kushan period. The housing complexes during this phase were enhanced to accommodate more people. The bigger rooms from the earlier phases were divided into many more rooms by erecting a wall as partition. Several additional rooms were built besides the partitioned rooms which indicates a growing family due to an increase in population during this cultural phase.

A circular room with tapering walls was added to provide a place for grain storage / agricultural surplus in the house. A big storage jar was found in situ inside this circular structure. It seems to have been a convention during the Kushan period for houses to have such circular structures in the rooms for storage purposes as well as several hearths of different shapes, and kilns inside and outside the houses. Period III is also marked by the appearance of a structure to the south of the housing area. This structure was supported by wooden posts and had a thatched roof made of tiles. The floor of this structure was built of baked bricks with a thick plaster of clay and lime covering the paved bricks. On the eastern side of this structure was a huge fire pit filled with ash. Well planned drainage system was also discovered during this phase of cultural activity.

During excavations remains of a unique road showing two phases of construction activity was revealed. The road dated to the Kushan period and ran in north south direction across the Karela lake on its southern end. It’s interesting to note that instead of a bridge the people of the time thought of constructing a road to connect with the settlements across the lake. Constructed out of burnt bricks in a double box pattern this road is a unique structure to have come to light from the excavations. As per archaeologists no such road of this kind dated to such antiquity has been unearthed at any other site. This road termed as ‘Rajpath’ measures 9.80 m in width. To create it the engineers of the day built two side walls in the ladder stretcher masonry bond pattern while the central wall and the cross walls were constructed on the ladder pattern. The boxes thus created were filled with compact blackish clay picked from the lake. The surface of the road was built of brick nodules and earth.

In this cultural phase, agriculture and trade formed the main modes of sustenance. Art and craft and professions originating out of agricultural and trading activities constituted the larger employment framework.

Period IV Gupta and post Gupta 200 CE – 700 CE

During the Gupta and post Gupta period, structures were largely built of remains from the structures of the preceding period. Town planning during this phase was haphazard than regular, indicating demographic pressure on the habitational area due to increased population. Encroachments on open and available spaces is also noted in this cultural phase. Foundations of buildings in this period are in some cases made of walls from the preceding period as well as constructed anew out of mud, brickbats and potsherds. Floors are paved with brickbats and bricks. The exterior walls of the houses are rough in texture compared to the smooth walls of the interior of the houses. Size of the rooms is relatively small. Remnants of what could have been a Gupta era brick temple were also unearthed from this cultural layer. Carved bricks depicting motifs such as padmapatra, tadapatra and bhumi or shikhara amalaka were discovered as part of these remains. During the Gupta period as part of the evolution in temple architecture, temple doorframes were built to include a number of dvarasakhas or door panels. Some of the motifs which were depicted on these panels included creepers, human figurines, lotuses and other auspicious images. The carved bricks unearthed at the site indicate a strong possibility of the existence of a shrine which followed the dvarasakha design in temple architecture.

The second phase of road construction took place during the Gupta period. It’s possible the Karela Jheel submerged the existing road during a season of excessive rainfall or other natural causes thereby creating the need for an emergency path. The road in this phase was laid with reused bricks and brickbats. Another structure which was revealed in the cultural phase dated to the Gupta period was shaped in rectangular form and was built of brickbats. The entrance of this structure was on the eastern side. The Gupta period road was exposed to be 5m in width lying over the earlier road. The outer faces were built with brickbats in footing pattern while the inside was filled with earth and brickbats.

While discussing the structures of this period it’s important to note what Hiuen Tsang has written in his travel records about the Punyaśālās (hospices) which Harshavardhan constructed along the highways connecting towns and villages of his kingdom. From food and drinks, free medicines and services of a physician were made available to the sick and needy at these places. Bana has written about the public works which were undertaken during Harshavardhan’s reign “Beneath his rule, the golden age seemed to bud forth in close packed lines of sacrificial posts, the evil time to flee in the smoke of sacrifices, meandering over the sky, heaven to descend in stuccoed shrines, Dharma to blossom in white pennons waving over temple minarets, the villages to bring forth a progeny of beautiful arbours erected in their outskirts for meetings, alms houses, inns and women’s marquees”. Considering the proximity of Hulaskhera to Kannauj the then imperial capital and its relative prosperity during the time it’s very possible the place was a healthy recipient of the advantages of the imperial projects and schemes.

Period V 700 CE to Medieval

The structures discovered in this cultural layer consist of a fort and a housing complex made of brick remains from the earlier structures. The fort is built on the elevated section of the mound with its entrance towards the western side. The description of the fortification matches Kautilya’s description of an audaka or water fortification in the Arthashastra which he says is one the most suited fortifications to defend populous centres.

“Or with ready preparations for flight the king may have his fortified capital (stháníya) as the seat of his sovereignty (samudayásthánam) in the centre of his kingdom: in a locality naturally best fitted for the purpose, such as the bank of the confluence of rivers, a deep pool of perennial water, or of a lake or tank, a fort, circular, rectangular, or square in form, surrounded with an artificial canal of water, and connected with both land and water paths (may be constructed)”

Arthashastra

The gateway complex encountered in the middle of the western fortification wall is characterised by projections on both the sides, a screen wall and side entrance. Both the entrances were provided with high doorsills of paved brickbats, wooden door frame with sheafs and iron bolts. Staircases probably meant for soldiers guarding the defence were provided inside the fortification walls. Structural activity comprising a brick residential complex was found surrounded by a 1m thick boundary wall.

Pottery

Period I PreNBP 1000 BCE – 700 BCE

Based on the presence of painted grey ware, the earliest cultural phase at Hulaskhera has been divided into two phases. The first phase does not reveal any sherd of the PGW while the second phase reveals a few fragmentary examples in well levigated clay in the form of miniature rounded bowls of a fine fabric and thin core. Painting on PGW is in dark grey pigment. The other difference between the pottery of phase one and phase two is that the latter has more decorations on the exterior surface of the potteries.

The ceramics which were in use in the first phase consist of the black slipped ware, black and red ware, red ware and grey ware. The potteries in the class of black slipped ware are superior in make being moulded from well levigated clay, of fine fabric, coated with a shining smooth slip and are well baked. Some of the sherds are seen to be burnished too. The form of potteries include bowls, dishes, vessels of varied sizes. The outer surface of the bowls and dishes show groove and ridge marks below the rims and at the waist. Black and red ware consists of both handmade and wheel turned variety. The wheel turned ware is of a fine fabric and made of well levigated clay.  It reveals the application of a red lip on the exterior and black slip on the interior. The hand made ware is of a coarse fabric and gritty core. The sherds show rustification and straw marks on the exterior. The dominant pottery of this cultural period was the red ware which consisted of both the handmade and the wheel turned varieties. The handmade ones are of coarse variety with a thick and gritty core while the wheel tuned ones are of fine fabric like in the case of black and red ware. The wheel turned variety is made of well levigated clay and varies from medium to fine fabric. Some of the wares of this variety are also treated with a fine slip and show burnishing. A few of them have a metallic sound. Some of the sherds also show painting on the exterior. This type of pottery is comprised of dishes, bowls, vessels, perforated bowls, lipped and legged pottery. The grey ware although scarce in number are made of well levigated clay with a fine finish. Some pottery show cord impression on their exterior.

In the second phase, pottery of the previous phase continued of the same make as earlier. The features of handmade and wheel turned potteries remained the same. The shapes included dishes, bowls, basins, jars, vase and water vessels. Legged and perforated bowls continued to be made in this phase as well. Carination is also noticed on the potteries. Studies in Britain have shown a strong association between carinated potteries and dairy products. It is likely that even in the Indian context these carinated vessels were used to prepare food using dairy products.

Period II  700 BCE – 300 BCE

The period under review is characterised by the northern polished ware is both fine and coarse varieties. This pottery type has a shining and smooth slip, is well baked and makes a metallic sound. A kind of pottery termed the deluxe ware is also found. Its distinguishing quality is a dotted decorative pattern on its exterior in black colour.

Black slipped ware shows gradually receding trend as the period progresses. Red ware and black and red ware are the other kind of potteries present in this cultural layer. The kind of vessels used in this phase comprises dishes and bowls. Pottery is made of well levigated clay. Black and red ware is found in both coarse and fine varieties. This ware is found in increasingly reduced numbers as one progress to upper levels of cultural deposits. Red ware is the more prolific pottery in this period and includes both the coarse and fine varieties. It is crafted into bowls, vessels, dishes and storage jars. Perforated, lipped potteries continued to be churned out in this period as in the earlier indicating a dietary constant from the earliest cultural layer to the present. Cord impressions is visible on some of the sherds along with husk marks, ridges and incised patterns. Rustification is found on some of the potteries. Grey ware and painted grey ware is scarce in number.

Period III 300 BCE – 200 CE

The ceramic industry of this period is characterised by the Red Ware though NBP and BSW also make an appearance in the early phase of the period. Although the presence of Black Slipped Ware showed sparse occurrence in this period, the Red Ware was found to be the dominant ceramic which took several new shapes and designs. New kitchen ware like the carinated handis treated with an additional layer of clay on the lower exterior to make it more resistant to fire, carinated stone pots, stone lids, lipped bowl, bowl with inturned rim, dish, vase, basin, sprinklers, large storage jar, spouted vessel, handled karahi were recovered. Sherds bearing mangalik motifs such as swastika, nandipada, leaf and pushpa are noteworthy. Different types of water vessels are found.

Besides kitchenware, terracotta figurines were also unearthed from this layer. Among the terracotta artefacts were those which depicted human heads with large budding eyes, open mouths and prominent moustaches and sporting beards. These were all made by hand. The clay used to make these was neither well prepared nor well baked.

Period IV Gupta and post Gupta 200 CE – 700 CE

During the period under review the type of pottery unearthed consisted of large storage jars, bowls, high necked water vessels, spouted vessels, vases, dishes and surahis. The bowls consisted of both the straight and the rounded varieties and were found decorated with artistic patterns like the leaf, waves, circles etc. Some of the pottery unearthed, like incense burners, indicate that they were used for ritual purposes. Lids of the vessels were styled in the following shapes – button knobbed, bell and cylindrical. Broken spouts with perforated filter were also recovered.

“A miniature sprinkler is of considerable significance. Such types have been unearthed at Narhan in Gorakhpur and Yaleshwaram in Andhra Pradesh and few other sites”

Period V 700 CE to Medieval

Pottery of this period includes knife edged bowls, conical knobbed lids of Red Ware besides glazed ware. Regular pottery for use in household functions continue to be part of the assemblage.

The shape of a pottery determines the use to which it is to be put. Vessels carrying liquids are shaped differently from those carrying grains and solid foods. Stationary vessels which are kept at a specified place in the household have differently moulded bottoms from those which are to be moved around either during meals or for other uses. Vessels taken on journeys or used to carry liquids from other places generally have narrow openings to avoid the contents from spilling. Narrow openings are also provided on vessels used to pour liquids. Storage jars, vessels have wider mouths to enable drawing of the contents with ease. Vessels used to make cheese, for making brews having ingredients which are required to be filtered are made perforated. Vessels which are suspended with ropes for carrying over distances are provided with a groove for holding the rope in place. Ritual pottery is marked by mangalik motifs with enhancements in the regular pottery to accommodate the ritual use. As we delved in the first part of the essay, pottery shapes can help in understanding the kind of diet and household activities prevalent in a cultural space. The kind of clay used, the finishing of pottery can reveal on the material progress made in a society. It also reveals the class of people for which the potteries were made. Refined pottery commanded a higher price. Commercially available pottery may have been designed for use for a host of socio economic groups and the distinctive make of the same would roughly indicate the kind of people that may have employed the different wares.

Economy and Trade

Period I PreNBP 1000 BCE – 700 BCE

As we have seen under ‘Settlement Pattern’, agriculture was the mainstay of the people of Hulaskhera during its earliest cultural phase. From the texts that record the economic conditions of those times, we learn how trade, both in agricultural and non agricultural goods, and the business of money lending, had created a class of prosperous citizenry. Wealthy traders were also heads of the various guilds that had formed during this time. A system of coinage had not been introduced as yet as no mention of the same is found in the literature of the time, although towards the end of the said cultural phase it is probable that coins did start to make an appearance as can be gauged from the discovery of punchmarked coins which are dated to this time. Krishnala or gunja berries were used as a measure of weight and a certain quantity of gold measured in terms of Krishnala may have been used by the merchants as currency in trade. A glance at the kind of occupations prevalent during this period throws further light on the economic as well as the social framework which may have existed at the time and of which ancient Hulaskhera was a part. People of the time were engaged in the business of money lending, worked as a teacher, as priests, as agriculturalists, pastoralists, jewellers, embroiders, herdsmen, potter, wood gatherer, smiths, basket maker, barber, boat propeller, cook, messenger, horse and elephant keeper etc,

Period II 700 BCE – 300 BCE

A system of coinage had come into shape by this time although trade still involved exchange of goods which involved payment in kind than coinage. Public houses selling food items were likely to have been a feature for there’s stipulation in the Grihyasutras that should a household be observing the death of a family member no food should be cooked at home and all the food requirements should be met by buying eatables from outside. Such requirements may have been met by buying food from other households or from public places. Various types of metals were known to the people which they used to manufacture articles of trade or crafted into items of personal. The different kind of yarns in use at the time can be gauged from the cloths in use namely, cotton, silk, woollen, linen and hemp. Economic framework as prevalent during this period is also revealed by the many professions practiced during this period. Grihyasutras prescribe the ritual to be performed for success in trade which indicates not just the role the religious beliefs played in the daily lives of the people but also the position of trade as a means of livelihood of the people.

During the Mauryan era, superintendents were entrusted with the management of the state’s trade in goods. The role of trade guilds had become more entrenched in this era compared to the previous periods. Those engaged in business activities could avail funds from the market but the rate of interest charged was high. People could deposist money with the bankers and earn interest on the same. Strict rules were put in place to control the activities of the merchants and artisans. Fines were levied in case of a lapse in the observance of rules. To check dishonest practices of the merchants suitable punishments were framed in order to provide a secure and trustworthy economic environment to the people.

Period III 300 BCE – 200 CE

From the Mahabhashya written by the grammarian Patanjali, one is able to gather a lucid picture of the economic life of the people of the era under review. As per Patanjali, an atmosphere of prosperity prevailed in the land during the period under discussion. People were engaged in trade and a variety of professions besides the main mode of sustenance which was agriculture. Guilds or body of professionals had not as yet come into existence f or we find no mention of such associations in the Mahabhashya. The economic framework was well supported by a well developed system of coinage, banking, and weights and measures. A strong network of inland and overseas trade added to the wealth of the land.

Period IV Gupta and post Gupta 200 CE – 700 CE

In the period under discussion material progress had made sufficient strides in the cities and villages of the day as is evident from the architecture and planning of the habitational centres of this era and the standard of living of the people in general. New cities came into existence as the centre of action moved from the earlier imperial centre of Pataliputra to Kanyakubja / Kannauj in Madhyadesha. Hulaskhera lies at a distance of one hundred and forty kms from Kannauj and may have benefitted immensely from the proximity to the imperial capital which was then bathed in wealth and cultural refinement while also being the foremost centre of learning. Besides sustenance from agricultural activities, other dominant areas of the economy comprised art and architecture, gems and jewellery, textiles and manufacturing. Textiles was a prized industry with many variety of cloths being manufactured. Mathura and Kashi were renowned for their weaves. Kauseya cloth was made of silk and cotton while Ksauma cloth was made of fibre from the plants of jute, flax and hemp. Kampala made from wool was another kind of cloth that was used for apparel as well as to make blankets. Gold and silver coins, cowries and pearls were the medium of exchange during this period. Some of the other crafts of this period which find mention in the records are the leather works, ivory art, some of the items recovered during excavations at Hulaskhera consist of ivory artefacts like bangles. Glassware may have been a local industry at Hulaskhera catering to the regional as well as far off markets as evidence of a glass factory has also come to light during the excavations.

Period V 700 CE to Medieval

The economic conditions during the period under consideration can be understood from the literary and the epigraphic evidence that has come down to us. Agriculture continued to form the main mode of sustenance in this period. The agrarian sphere progressed in terms of the varieties of grains and vegetables which were grown by the people as well as advances in technology for the harvest and irrigation of crops. Textile industry continued to flourish in this era as it had in the past in the kind and quality of products manufactured. Occupations associated with the textile industry like that of the tailor, the dyer, the weaver, the spinner, the lace maker continued to be a means of livelihood for the people of this age. Metal industry too enjoyed a prominent status in the economic framework of the day. Various metals like tin, iron, lead, silver, gold, copper etc find mention in the records of the time. Gems and jewellery industry maintained its successful trend as in the previous eras. The kingdom of Kannauj finds mention in the records of the time as being a centre of gold and silver indicating the metals were not only worked on in the region but also formed a significant item of trade. Rock salt, antimony, beryl, textiles, jewellery, metal works, animal products like skins, chowries made of chamara deer’s tail, grapes, jujube were the articles of trade originating in Uttarapatha. Fragrant plants, creepers, aloes were some of the specialities of Purvadesha which is defined as the territory east of Kashi.

Metal works in the form of iron spears, arrowheads, copper antimony rods, nails, rings, hooks have been unearthed among the archaeological finds at Hulaskhera. Besides these items, beads coated with gold and copper,  ivory products, terracotta products, bone works have also been discovered. Coins dating to both Kushan and Gupta eras as well as punch-marked coins have also been excavated from the site.

Polity and Administration

Period I PreNBP 1000 BCE – 700 BCE and Period II 700 BCE – 300 BCE

In the period under review the system of governance was organised on the principles of a monarchical state with the king as its head. In some regions this system of governance later evolved into republics or janapadas. Under a monarchy, the king was assisted by a parishad or a council of ministers as well as a sabha. Some of the important officials who formed part of the government were the chief minister or arya brahmana, the chief priest or the purohita, the commander of the army or the senapati. The administration of the kingdom was managed by a well organised civil services. Officers named ayuktas were in charge of the routine administrative work. If they were assigned a special / particular task these officers  were termed niyuktas. Another class of officers who headed the various government departments were known as adhyakshas. The rank of subordinate officers were called yuktas who were assigned the different departments under the adhyakshas.

Period III 300 BCE – 200 CE

Patanjali’s Mahabhashya provides us with very little information on the kind of administrative set up which may have prevailed at the time. The village was envisioned as the smallest administrative unit with gramani as its head. A collection of five villages was called panchagrama which may have been another unit of administrative control. Several royal officials are also mentioned by Patanjali such as the senani (commander in chief) the rajavaidya (physician) chhatradhara (canopy holder), dvarapala (doorkeeper).

From the epigraphic and other historical records we glean that under the Kushans, the system of administration at the higher levels involved people from what appears from their names to have been of foreign origin just like the members of the Kushan dynasty they were working under. The administrative system at the higher level comprised of the following prominent officers – mahakshatrapas, kshatrapas, mahadandanayakas, dandanayakas who had a definite administrative unit (province) with a set of functions on its governance. These officials were either appointed by the king (in consultation with his advisers, if any) or assumed power by virtue of their hereditary claim. At the lower level, the Kushans seem to have stuck with the traditional system of governance without bringing any modifications to the same, very unlike how they managed the topmost echelons of administration. The head of a village was known as gramika, as we come to know from an inscription from Mathura. The position of the gramika was hereditary in nature and likely corresponded to the gramani of the Vedic age. As to his exact functions not much can be found in the records of the time, but he likely oversaw the various activities of a village be it of civil or legal nature.

Period IV Gupta and post Gupta 200 CE – 700 CE

Under the Guptas the traditional model for the administration of provinces or what were known as bhuktis was followed. Each bhukti was under the control of the appointed uparikas. Under the uparikas there were subordinate officials like the kumaramatyas, vishayapatis or ayuktakas. Each bhukti was further divided into various vishayas under a subordinate of the uparikas. During the reign of Harshavardhan the territory of the kingdom was defined by various terms such as rajya, desha, mandala and rashtra. Such a territory was made up of several administrative divisions like bhukti, vishaya and grama with grama constituting the smallest administrative unit. Bhukti translated into what are known as provinces while vishaya translated into a zone. Each vishaya had an administrative centre known as the adhishthana. A province or bhukti was presided by an officer known as the uparika-maharaja, gopta, bhogika, bhogapati, rajasthaniya, rastriya or even rashtrapati. The uparika-maharaja appointed his subordinates who were known by the terms vishayapati or ayuktaka.

Period V 700 CE to Medieval

During the period under review a royal territory was divided into various administrative units. The provinces were called the bhukti which were again divided into mandalas which again were divided into vishayas. Some of the officers during the time as mentioned in the historical records were dandapasika who oversaw law and order, maha pratihar a or the royal guards, dandanayaka or the general, baladhikrita or the commander. Administration of the forts was kept separate from the administration of the civilian territories. The latter being entrusted to a board consisting of two guild members and a caravan in charge. Such a model of governance may have been in force at the fortification at Hulaskhera which is dated to the late classical period.

Travel and Communication

Excavations at Hulaskhera have revealed enough evidences that indicate the people of the place had extensive contacts with their larger regional geography. The sturdy road built across the lake during successive cultural phases and the artefacts unearthed from the site suggest that the passage was used not just to build contacts with the settlements in the immediate vicinity of Hulaskhera but to also transport goods for purposes of trade and other long journeys which required moving heavy luggage from one place to another.

Besides the road transport network, waterways formed and important mode of transport for the people of the region in the ancient times. The favourable location of Hulaskhera and Dadupur made their inhabitants within convenient reach of the strategically key transit points which connected the region with places further north on the Uttarapatha, towards Purvadesha which lay beyond Benaras, and towards Deccan as well as the western coast.

The Grand Route which traversed the plains of northern India was an important over land route  which connected the eastern or Purvadesha of the country with its northern and north western parts. This route passed through some of the historical centres of the northern plains situated along the Ganga thus contributing in their progress by lending both economic advantage and ease of contact to the people of these regions. The road from Varanasi to Taxila passed through thick jungles with ever present risk of attack from the wild animals and highwaymen. The literature of the time mentions how merchants from the regions of Varanasi, Sravasti and Soreya (Soron) were regular travellers to the trade towns on the frontiers of the land. Soreya has been identified with the present day Soron in Uttar Pradesh and was once the capital of the province of Kanyakubja.

People of Hulaskhera enjoyed the locational advantage which enabled them to use both the northern and the southern historical routes. The northern route followed the modern day railway route from the north western frontier to Saharanpur and then to Lucknow while the southern route which ran parallel to the northern route entered Delhi. After crossing Delhi it sailed across the Yamuna to reach the Doab. Travelling along the right bank of the Ganga it touched upon the many cities which lay along to reach Prayag.

In the Aranyaka Parva of the Mahabharata the region between the rivers Chambal and Betwa (Vetravati) is referred as the gateway to Deccan.

“Ete gachchanti bahavah panthano dakshinapatham”

The region also opened up routes to Vidarbha and Dakshin Koshala.

The location of Hulaskhera, Dadupur and other neighbouring sites of considerable antiquity are situated in close proximity to the rivers Sai, Gomati, Ganga and Yamuna which were navigated in the ancient times by the people of the Ganga plains. For travelling to the Deccan, the use of the river port at Jajmau at Kanpur was a crucial transit point.

“The character of Jajmau (Sinha 1990-91) puts it in a special category. From the Unnao side this must have been the most important crossing point of the Ganga, and from this point of view this site, which is in..modern Kanpur, can logically be claimed to be its ancient counterpart. This crossing of the Ganga was particularly significant because it took one almost straight to the crossing of the Yamuna at Musanagar, beyond Ghatampur, which in turn led to central India. Jajmau thus stands on an arterial route linking a part of the Oudh plain and lower Doab to central India and the Deccan and is thus a major site of the Ganga plain as a whole…Both the sites on the Yamuna cliff – Reh and Musanagar – are important as river ports. One does not get major sites overlooking the cliff of a major river unless the immediate proximity of the river was an important factor in the economic life of the settlement concerned.”

Rakesh Tewari, D.K. Chakrabarti, R.N.Singh

Conclusion

The site of Hulaskhera is an important civilisational landmark in the archaeological landscape of the Ganga plains. It’s the only site in central Uttar Pradesh along the river Sai to have revealed continuous cultural sequence from 1000 B.C.E to 1300 C.E.. The cause of abandonment of the site may have been due to environmental reasons. It’s likely the passage connecting the site with the settlements across the lake may have gotten submerged thus removing the only point of access with the rest of the world. With the lake not navigable enough the inhabitants may have had no choice but to leave the place for purposes of survival. The tranquil setting of Hulaskhera, covered in thick shrubbery and native trees may have been just another rural site on the map had it not been for the archaeological discoveries made here which makes one wonder how many valuable sites still lie buried holding within their wilderness pointers to the growth of our culture. Would these sites be discovered when a random shovel strikes a piece of heritage while removing earth for construction and such purposes or will they be discovered well in time to ensure their proper conservation. The governments of the day must support those actively involved in the research of our cultural heritage, encourage interdisciplinary studies while ensuring such sites are not at the receiving end of the developmental projects that can compromise the character of such important cultural landmarks. Standing amidst the dense growth of grasses and wild flora, in the solitude of a picturesque winter’s day, one tries to piece together the life of a people who once sowed the seeds of civilisation in a ruggedly beautiful corner of this riverine land some three thousand or more years ago based on the remains they have left behind. Lucknow district is dotted with many historical sites which have been subjected to varying levels of excavations and explorations. Detailed studies on these sites will establish the kind of historical relationship which existed among them for an in depth understanding of the region’s civilisational roots and cultural history.

References

Indian Archaeological Reviews on Hulaskhera

Excavations at Hulaskhera – Pragdhara – Rakesh Tewari, Hemraj, R.K Srivastava

Kautilya’s Arthashastra

Excavations at Hulaskhera – V. K Tiwari

Patanjali’s Mahabhashya

Trade and Trade Routes In Ancient India – Moti Chandra

India as known to Panini – V.S. Agarwal

Harsha – R.K Mookerjee

Ancient India as described by Megasthenes and Adrian by J.W. McCrindle

The Economic Factors in Kushan History – B.N. Mukherjee

The Imperial Age of Kannauj, The Classical Age, The Vedic Age – Bharatiya Vidya Bhawan

India Under the Kushans – B.N. Puri

Kārttikeya in Literature, Art and Coins – Upendra Thakur

Naigamesa Emerging as Kartikeya – The iconographic record – G. B. Deglurkar

Harshavardhan – Gaurishankar Chataji

Late Quaternary vegetation history, climatic variability and human activity in the Central Ganga Plain, deduced by pollen proxy records from Karela Jheel – M.S. Chauhan, R.K. Srivastava, A.K. Pokharia

Re-thinking ‘thinking’ : ceramic studies in Gujarat – Archana Choksi